Logic of a mammalian metabolic cycle: An oscillated NAD⁺/NADH redox signaling regulates coordinated histone expression and S-phase progression

Many biological activities naturally oscillate. Here, we show that the NAD⁺/NADH ratios (redox status) fluctuate during mammalian cell cycle, with the S-phase redox status being the least oxidative. The S-phase NAD⁺/NADH redox status gates histone expression and S-phase progression, and may provide a genome protection mechanism during S-phase DNA replication as implicated in yeast. Accordingly, perturbing the cellular redox inhibits histone expression and leads to S-phase arrest. We propose that the S-phase NAD⁺/NADH redox status constitutes a redox signaling, which along with the cyclin E/cdk2 signaling regulates histone expression and S-phase progression.